The unique physical and chemical properties of fullerene (e.g., C60) have elicited broad research interest from different areas since it was discovered in 1985 (Kroto et al. (1985) Nature 318:162-3; Kroto et al. (1991) Chem. Rev., 91:1213-35). Over the past 20 years, fullerene has been investigated as a radical scavenger, due to its highly unsaturated structure and excellent electron-receptor properties (Bosi et al. (2003) Eur. J. Med. Chem., 38:913-23; Krusic et al. (1991) Science 254:1183-5; McEwen et al. (1992) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 114:4412-4; Markovic et al. (2008) Biomaterials 29:3561-73; Nakamura et al. (2003) Acc. Chem. Res., 36:807-15). It has been reported that one fullerene molecule can readily react with at least 15 benzyl radicals or 34 methyl radicals to form stable radical or non-radical adducts (Krusic et al. (1991) Science 254:1183-5). Many detrimental biological free radicals, such as superoxide (O2−), hydroxyl radical (OH), singlet oxygen (1O2) and nitrogen-based radicals can be efficiently scavenged by fullerene and fullerene derivatives (Yin et al. (2009) Biomaterials 30:611-21; Misirkic et al. (2009) Biomaterials 30:2319-28; Lin et al. (2001) Appl. Magn. Reson., 20:583-4; Dugan et al. (1997) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 94:9434-9; Wang et al. (1999) J. Med. Chem., 42:4614-20). However, the extreme hydrophobicity and potential toxicity of fullerene limit its application as a therapeutic antioxidant (Nakamura et al. (2003) Acc. Chem. Res., 36:807-15). To overcome these barriers, two major categories of strategies have been developed in the last two decades: (1) synthesis of water-soluble fullerene derivatives which maintain the radical scavenging capability, such as carboxyfullerene (C3) (Dugan et al. (1997) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 94:9434-9; Lamparth et al. (1994) J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun., 14:1727-8.) and poly-hydroxyfullerene (fullerenol) (Dugan et al. (1997) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 94:9434-9; Chiang et al. (1994) J. Org. Chem., 59:3960-8); and (2) solubilization of pristine fullerene using polymer, surfactant, cyclodextrin, liposome, solvent exchange or nanomilling (Misirkic et al. (2009) Biomaterials 30:2319-28; Kato S, Kikuchi et al. (2010) J. Photochem. Photobiol. B., 98:144-51; Andrievsky et al. (1995) J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun., 12:1281-2; Ungurenasu et al. (2000) J. Med. Chem., 43:3186-8; Samal et al. (2000) Chem. Commun., 13:1101-2; Yamakoshi et al. (1994) J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun., 4:517-8; Shinohara et al. (2009) Toxicol. Lett., 191:289-96; Xiao et al. (2010) Biomaterials 31:5976-85). For example, a carboxylated fullerene derivative (C60 tris-malonic acid) was reported to be able to protect neurons from apoptosis induced by glutamate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity, and is now being commercially developed as a therapy for neurodegenerative diseases (Dugan et al. (1997) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 94:9434-9; All et al. (2008) Nanomedicine 4:283-94; Ali et al. (2004) Free Radic. Biol. Med., 37:1191-202). Several pristine fullerene formulations, such as fullerene-poly (N-vinyl pyrrolidine) (PVP) complex (Radical Sponge®) or fullerene-containing vegetable squalane (LipoFullerene®), have been approved as the antioxidant ingredients in cosmetic products and are sold in some countries (Xiao et al. (2010) Biomaterials 31:5976-85; Xiao et al. (2005) Biomed. Pharmacother., 59:3518; Xiao et al. (2006) Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett., 16:1590-5; Lens et al. (2009) Recent Pat. Biotechnol., 3:118-23).